User:Donald Trung/Chinese cash coins on Wikimedia Commons

This list is here for maintenance ⛑🏻 purposes to to which inscriptions are on Wikimedia Commons and which ones are missing, the list is copied but the format is to differentiate between dynasties where the inscription is repeated. --Donald Trung 『徵國單』 (No Fake News 💬) (WikiProject Numismatics 💴) (Articles 📚) 19:55, 4 September 2018 (UTC)^[a]

Main category: Category:Coins of China by period.

Below is a list of inscriptions that were used on Chinese cash coins organized by period and/or dynasty.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Warring states period

During the Warring states period of the Zhou dynasty the first precursors of the Chinese cash coins started to appear, these early round coins (圜錢, huánqián) circulated alongside the knife and spade money. As most of these early round coins had round holes the first "true" cash coins were the Yi Hua (一化) produced by the State of Yan.^[4]^[5] Apart from two small and presumably late coins from the State of Qin, coins from the spade money area have a round hole and refer to the jin and liang units. Those from the knife money area have a square hole and are denominated in hua.^[6]

Round hole, no rims, reverses plain and flat

List of early round coins produced between 350 BC and 220 BC:^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu pinyin	Meaning	Alternative reading(s)
Gong	共	gòng	A city in the state of Liang	None
Gong Tun Chi Jin	共屯赤金	gòng tún chì jīn	"Gong Pure Red Metal"	共純赤金 (Gong Chun Chi Jin)
Gong Ban Jin	共半釿	gòng bàn jīn	"Gong, half jin"	None
Yuan^[b]	垣	yuán	A city in the state of Liang	None
Gu	古	gǔ	"Old"	None
An Zang	安臧	ān zāng	A city in the state of Zhou	None
Qi Yuan Yi Jin	漆垣一釿	qī yuán yì jīn	"Qiyuan, one Jin", State of Liang	長垣 (Chang Yuan)
Xiang Yin^[c]	襄陰	xiāng yīn	A city in the state of Liang	濟陰 (Ji Yin) 畢陰 (Bi Yin)
Shu Huan Yi Jin	黍圜一釿	shǔ huán yì jīn	"Shuhuan, one jin"	黍睘一釿 (Shu Yuan Yi Yin)
Li Shi	離石	lí shí	A city in the state of Zhao	None
Feng Ping	封坪	fēng píng	Unknown	陰坪 (Yin Ping) 武坪 (Wu Ping)
Hou Jin	侯釿	hóu jīn	"Hou, (one) Jin"	None
Hun	焛	hǔn	Unknown	None
Lin	藺	lìn	A city in the state of Zhao	閵 (Lin)
Wu'an	武安	wǔ ān	"Martial peace"	None
Pishi	皮氏	pí shì		None
Pingbei	平備	píng bèi	"Perfect peace"	None
Xi Zhou	西周	xī zhōu	State of Western Zhou	None
Dong Zhou	東周	dōng zhōu	State of Eastern Zhou	None
Ban Yuan	半睘	bàn qióng	"Half Coin"^[d]	None

State of Yan

List of early round coins produced by the State of Yan between 300 BC and 220 BC:

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu pinyin
Yi Hua^[e]	一化	yī huà
Ming Hua	明化	míng huà
Ming Si	明四	míng sì

State of Qi

List of early round coins produced by the State of Qi between 300 BC and 220 BC:

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu pinyin	Alternative reading(s)
Yi Hua	益化	yì huà	賹化 (Ai Hua)
Yi Si Hua	益四化	yì sì huà	賹四化 (Ai Si Hua)
Yi Liu Hua^[f]	益六化	yì liù huà	賹六化 (Ai Liu Hua)

State of Qin

List of early round coins produced by the State of Qin between 250 BC and 220 BC:

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu pinyin	Meaning
Zhong Yi Liang Shi Er Yi Zhu	重一兩十二一珠	zhòng yī liǎng shí èr yī zhū	"Weight of 1 Liang and 12 times 1 Zhu"
Zhong Yi Liang Shi Si Yi Zhu	重一兩十四一珠	zhòng yī liǎng shí sì yī zhū	"Weight of 1 Liang and 14 times 1 Zhu"
Chang'an	長安	cháng'ān	Said to have been cast by Zhao Chengjiao, Lord of Chang'an.
Wenxin	文信	wén xìn	Said to have been cast by Lü Buwei, the Marquis of Wenxin.
Liang Zi	兩甾^[g]	liǎng zī	"Two Zi" (12 Zhu)
Ban Liang	半兩	bàn liǎng	"Half tael"

Qin dynasty

During the Qin dynasty production of the Ban Liang cash coins continued and its weight was standardised.^[12]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu pinyin	Literal translation	Years of production	Emperors	Image
Ban Liang	半兩	bàn liǎng	"Half tael"	221 BC–206 BC	Qin Shi Huang Qin Er Shi

Western Han dynasty

Under the Western Han dynasty the Ban Liang cash coins of the earlier Qin dynasty were retained until a series of monetary reforms replaced them first with the San Zhu and then the Wu Zhu, the latter would be continued to be manufactured for around 700 years.

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu pinyin	Literal translation	Years of production
Ban Liang	半兩	bàn liǎng	"Half tael"	206 BC–119 BC
San Zhu	三銖	sān zhū	"Three Zhu"	119 BC–118 BC^[h]
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū	"Five Zhu"	118 BC–9 AD

Xin dynasty

After Wang Mang usurped the throne he instituted various monetary reforms, in AD 9 he retained the Wu Zhu cash coins but introduced two new types of Knife money, between AD 9 and 10 he introduced an impossibly complex system involving tortoise shell, cowries, gold, silver, six round copper coins, and a reintroduction of the spade money in ten denominations. In AD 14, all these tokens were abolished, and replaced by another type of spade coin and new round coins.^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]

List of cash coins issued by the Xin dynasty:

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu pinyin	Literal translation	Years of production	Emperor
The Six Round Coins (series 9–14)
Xiao Quan Zhi Yi	小泉直一	xiǎoquán zhí yī	"Small Coin, Value One"	9–14	Wang Mang
Yao Quan Yi Shi	么泉一十	yǎo quán yīshí	"Baby Coin, Ten"	9–14	Wang Mang
You Quan Er Shi	幼泉二十	yòu quán èrshí	"Juvenile Coin, Twenty"	9–14	Wang Mang
Zhong Quan San Shi	中泉三十	zhōng quán sānshí	"Middle Coin, Thirty"	9–14	Wang Mang
Zhuang Quan Si Shi	壯泉四十	zhuàng quán sìshí	"Adult Coin, Forty"	9–14	Wang Mang
Da Quan Wu Shi	大泉五十	dàquán wǔshí	"Large coin with a nominal value of fifty (Wu Zhu cash coins)"	9–14	Wang Mang
Later issues
Huo Quan	貨泉	huòquán	"Wealth/Money Coin"	14–23	Wang Mang
Bu Quan	布泉	bù quán	"Spade Coin"	14–23	Wang Mang

Eastern Han dynasty

The Eastern Han dynasty only cast Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins.^[17]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Image
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū

Kingdom of Khotan

List of cash coins produced by the Kingdom of Khotan:^[18]^[19]^[20]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Approximate years of production	King	Illustration (from A. Stein)	Image
Yu Fang	于方	yú fāng	129–130	Fang Qian

The Three Kingdoms

List of Chinese cash coins issued during Three Kingdoms period:^[21]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu pinyin	Literal translation	Approximate years of production	King
Cao Wei (222–265)
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū	"Five Zhu"	227–265	All (except for Cao Pi)
Shu Han (221–265)
Zhi Bai Wu Zhu	直百五銖	zhí bǎi wǔ zhū	"Value One Hundred Wu Zhu"	214	Liu Bei
Zhi Bai	直百	zhí bǎi	"Value One Hundred"	214	Liu Bei
Tai Ping Bai Qian	太平百錢	tàipíng bǎi qián	"Taiping One Hundred Cash"	Unknown	Liu Bei
Zhi Yi	直一	zhí yī	"Value One"	Unknown	Liu Bei
Ding Ping Yi Bai	定平一百	dìngpíng yībǎi	"Ding Ping One Hundred"	Unknown	Liu Bei
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū	"Five Zhu"	Unknown	Liu Bei
Eastern Wu (222–280)
Da Quan Wu Bai	大泉五百	dàquán wǔbǎi	"Large Coin Five Hundred"	236	Sun Quan
Da Quan Dang Qian	大泉當千	dàquán dāng qiān	"Large Coin Worth a Thousand"	238	Sun Quan
Da Quan Er Qian	大泉二千	dàquán èrqiān	"Large Coin, Two Thousand"	Unknown	Sun Quan
Da Quan Wu Qian	大泉五千	dàquán wǔqiān	"Large Coin, Five Thousand"	Unknown	Sun Quan

Kingdom of Kucha

List of cash coins produced by the Kingdom of Kucha:^[22]^[23]^[2]^[24]

Inscription (Obverse)	Inscription (Reverse)	Approximate years of production	Differentiating features
Blank	Blank	265–589	These have a rim around the square centre hole on one side while the other side is rimless, they tend to thin on the outside while they’re thick on the inside.
Blank	Blank	265–589	Similar to the first type but these cash coins have no inner rim.
Blank	Blank	265–589	These cash coins are completely without rim but are square in shape and have a square centre hole, they tend to be very thin.
Blank	Blank	265–589	These cash coins are irregularly shaped, diminutive in size, thin, and are cast of poor workmanship. Some are merely five millimeters in diameter and weigh as little as 0.2 grams.
五銖 (Wu Zhu)	An undeciphered Kuśiññe language inscription.	Unknown	These are the only known cash coins produced by Kucha with an inscription.

Jin Dynasty and the 16 Kingdoms

List of Chinese cash coins produced during the Jin dynasty and Sixteen Kingdoms period:^[25]^[2]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu pinyin	Literal translation	Approximate years of production	Monarch
Jin dynasty (265–420)
Wu Zhu^[26]	五銖	wǔ zhū	"Five Zhu"	Unknown	Unknown
Former Liang Kingdom (301–376)
Liang Zao Xin Quan	涼造新泉	liáng zào xīnquán	"Liang Made New Coin"	317–376	King Zhang Gui
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū	"Five Zhu"	Unknown	King Zhang Gui^[i]
Later Zhao Kingdom (319–352)
Feng Huo	豐貨	fēng huò	"The Coin of Abundance"	319	Shi Le
Cheng Han Kingdom (303–347)
Han Xing	漢興	hàn xìng	"the period title of [Han Xing]"^[j]	337–343	Li Shou
Xia Kingdom (407–431)
Tai Xia Zhen Xing	太夏眞興	tài xià zhēnxìng	"Great Xia, Zhenxing [period]"	419–424	Helian Bobo

The North and South dynasties

List of cash coins produced by the Northern and Southern dynasties:^[27]^[28]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Literal translation	Years of production	Emperor (South / North)
Southern dynasties
Song dynasty (420–479)
Si Zhu	四銖	sì zhū	"Four Zhu"	430	Emperor Wen
Xiao Jian (obverse) Si Zhu	孝建 (obverse) 四銖 (reverse)	xiào jiàn (obverse) sì zhū (reverse)	"Xiaojian period" (obverse) "Four Zhu" (reverse)	454–467	Emperor Xiaowu
Jing He	景和	jǐng hé	"[Jing He period title]"	465	Emperor Fei
Yong Guang	永光	yǒng guāng	"[Yong Guang period title]"	465	Emperor Fei
Liang Zhu	兩銖	liǎng zhū	"Two Zhu" "A pair of Zhu's"	465	Emperor Fei
Liang dynasty (502–556)
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū	"Five Zhu"	502–556	All
Taiqing Fengle	太清豐樂	tài qīng fēng lè	"Tai Qing, Prosperous and Happy"	547–549	Emperor Wu
Chen dynasty (557–589)
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū	"Five Zhu"	560–566	Emperor Wen
Taihuo Liuzhu	太貨六銖	tài huò liù zhū	"The Large Coin Six Zhu"	579	Emperor Xuan
Liu Zhu^[2]^[k]	六銖	liù zhū	"Six Zhu"	579	Emperor Xuan
Northern dynasties
Northern Wei dynasty (386–534)
Taihe Wuzhu	太和五銖	tài hé wǔ zhū	"Taihe [period] Wu Zhu"	495	Emperor Xiaowen
Wu Zhu^[2]	五銖	wǔ zhū	"Five Zhu"	510	Emperor Xuanwu
Yongan Wuzhu	永安五銖	yǒng'ān wǔ zhū	"Yong An [period] Wu Zhu"	529–543	Emperor Xiaozhuang
Western Wei dynasty (535–557)
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū	"Five Zhu"	546	Emperor Wen
Northern Qi dynasty (550–77)
Chang Ping Wu Zhu	常平五銖	chángpíng wǔ zhū	"The Constant and Regular Wu Zhu"	553	Emperor Wenxuan
Northern Zhou dynasty (557–581)
Bu Quan	布泉	bù quán	"Spade Coin"	561	Emperor Wu
Wuxing Dabu	五行大布	wǔháng dà bù	"The Large Coin of the Five Elements [metal, wood, water, fire, and earth]"	574	Emperor Wu
Yongtong Wanguo	永通萬國	yǒng tōng wànguó	"Everlasting Circulation in Ten Thousand Kingdoms"	579	Emperor Xuan

3 and 4 Zhu cash coins attributed to this period

3 and 4 Zhu cash coins are a small group of square and round coins which do not always have a hole in the middle. They are usually attributed to the time of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. This was an unsettled period which produced some very poor coinage. The obverse inscriptions give a weight of 3 or 4 zhu. The reverse inscriptions appear to be place names.^[29]

Square shape:

Obverse inscription	Reverse inscription	Image
三朱 (San Zhu)	Blank
四朱 (Si Zhu)	Blank
四朱 (Si Zhu)	四朱 (Si Zhu)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	Unknown, Peng Xinwei proposes that this inscription reads "Yan Xiang".
四朱 (Si Zhu)	吕 (Lü)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	東阿 (Dong A)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	姑幕 (Gu Mu)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	定襄 (Ding Xiang)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	高柳 (Gao Liu)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	陽丘 (Yang Qiu)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	菑 (Zi)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	騶 (Zou)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	濮陽 (Pu Yang)
淳于四朱 (Chun Yu Si Zhu)	Blank
臨菑四朱 (Lin Zi Si Zhu)	Blank

Round coins with a round hole:

Obverse inscription	Reverse inscription	Image
四朱 (Si Zhu)	Blank
四朱 (Si Zhu)	四朱 (Si Zhu)
四朱 (Si Zhu)	安平 (An Ping)
下菜四朱 (Xia Cai Si Zhu)	Blank
宜陽四朱 (Yi Yang Si Zhu)	Blank
臨朐四朱 (Lin Qu Si Zhu)	Blank

Sui dynasty

The Sui dynasty only cast Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins.^[30]^[31]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Image
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū

Tang dynasty

List of cash coins issued by the Tang dynasty:^[32]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Years of production	Emperor
Kaiyuan Tongbao	開元通寶	kāiyuán tōng bǎo	621–846	Various
Qianfeng Quanbao	乾封泉寶	qián fēng quán bǎo	666	Gaozong
Qianyuan Zhongbao	乾元重寶	qián yuán zhòng bǎo	758–762	Suzong

Local issues

List of local issue cash coins of the Tang dynasty:^[21]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Approximate years of production	Place of mintage	Emperor
Dali Yuanbao	大曆元寶	dà lì yuánbǎo	766–779	Kucha area, Protectorate General to Pacify the West	Daizong
Da	大	dà	766–779	Kucha area, Protectorate General to Pacify the West	Daizong
Yuan	元	yuán	766–779	Kucha area, Protectorate General to Pacify the West	Daizong
Jianzhong Tongbao	建中通寶	jiàn zhōng tōng bǎo	780–783	Kucha area, Protectorate General to Pacify the West	Dezong
Zhong	中	zhōng	780–783	Kucha area, Protectorate General to Pacify the West	Dezong
Xiantong Xuanbao	咸通玄寶	xián tōng xuán bǎo	860–874	Guiyang Inspectorate	Yizong
Gaochang Jili	高昌吉利	Gāochāng jí lì	860–874	Gaochang	Yizong

Yan dynasty

List of cash coins issued by the Great Yan dynasty during the An Lushan Rebellion:^[33]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Years of production	Emperor	Image
Deyi Yuanbao	得壹元寶	de yī yuánbǎo	758	Shi Siming
Shuntian Yuanbao	順天元寶	shùn tiān yuánbǎo	759–761	Shi Siming

Uyghur Khaganate

The Uyghur Khaganate manufactured a cash coin with an Old Uyghur inscription under the reign of Boquq Khagan.^[34]^[35]^[36] A later cash coin is known to have been cast by the Uyghurs but it is not known when it was manufactured.^[37]^[38]

Inscription (obverse)	Inscription (reverse)	Approximate years of production	Khagan	Image
Köl bilgä Tängri Boquq Uiğur qağan	Il tutmiš yarliğinga	795–808	Boquq Khagan
Iduq yarliq yurisun		Unknown	Unknown

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Later Liang dynasty

List of cash coins produced by the Later Liang dynasty (907–923):^[39]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Years of production	Emperor	Image
Kaiping Tongbao	開平通寶	kāipíng tōng bǎo	907	Zhu Wen

Later Tang dynasty

List of cash coins produced by the Later Tang dynasty (923–936):^[39]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Years of production	Emperor	Image
Tiancheng Yuanbao	天成元寶	tiānchéng yuánbǎo	926–929	Ming

Later Jin dynasty (936–947)

List of cash coins produced by the Later Jin dynasty (936–947):^[39]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Years of production	Emperor	Image
Tianfu Yuanbao	天福元寶	tiānfú yuánbǎo	938	Gao Zong

Later Han dynasty

List of cash coins produced by the Later Han dynasty (948–951):^[39]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Years of production	Emperor	Image
Hanyuan Tongbao	漢元通寶	hàn yuán tōng bǎo	948	Gao Zu

Later Zhou dynasty

List of cash coins produced by the Later Zhou dynasty (951–960):^[40]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Years of production	Emperor	Image
Zhouyuan Tongbao	周元通寶	zhōuyuán tōng bǎo	955–960	Shi Zong

Former Shu

List of cash coins attributed to the Former Shu Kingdom (907–925):^[41]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Years of production	King
Yongping Yuanbao	永平元寶	yǒng píng yuánbǎo	911–915	Wang Jian
Tongzheng Yuanbao	通正元寶	tōng zhèng yuánbǎo	916	Wang Jian
Tianhan Yuanbao	天漢元寶	tiānhàn yuánbǎo	917	Wang Jian
Guangtian Yuanbao	光天元寶	guāng tiān yuánbǎo	918	Wang Jian
Qiande Yuanbao	乾德元寶	qián dé yuánbǎo	919–924	Wang Zongyan
Xiankang Yuanbao	咸康元寶	xián kāng yuánbǎo	925	Wang Zongyan

Kingdom of Min

List of cash coins attributed to the Kingdom of Min (909–945):^[42]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Differentiating features and notes	Years of production	Monarch
Kaiyuan Tongbao	開元通寶	kāiyuán tōng bǎo	A small lead Kai Yuan coin was minted in Ninghua County of Dingzhou Prefecture in Fujian Province, where deposits of lead had been discovered. The lead coins circulated together with copper coins.	916	Wang Shenzhi
Kaiyuan Tongbao	開元通寶	kāiyuán tōng bǎo	These cash coins have a large dot above on the reverse side. They are made of iron and the same coin cast in bronze is extremely rare.	922	Wang Shenzhi
Kaiyuan Tongbao	開元通寶	kāiyuán tōng bǎo	These cash coins have the character Min (Chinese: 閩; pinyin: mǐn) on the reverse. They are from the Fujian region and made of lead.		Wang Shenzhi
Kaiyuan Tongbao	開元通寶	kāiyuán tōng bǎo	These cash coins have the character Fu (Chinese: 福; pinyin: fú) on the reverse in reference to Fuzhou. They are made of lead.		Wang Shenzhi
Yonglong Tongbao	永隆通寶	yǒnglóng tōng bǎo	These iron cash coins have the character Min (Chinese: 閩; pinyin: mǐn) on the reverse and comes from the Fujian region. There is a crescent below. One of these large Yonglong Tongbao coins was worth 10 small coins and 100 lead coins. A string of 500 of these poorly made Min iron coins were popularly called a kao ("a manacle").	942	Wang Yanxi
Tiande Tongbao	天德通寶	tiān dé tōng bǎo	These cash coins are made of iron.	944	Wang Yanzheng

Kingdom of Chu

List of cash coins attributed to the Kingdom of Chu (907–951):^[43]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Differentiating features and notes	Years of production	Monarch
Tiance Fubao	天策府寶	tiān cè fǔ bǎo	These cash coins are made of iron.	911	Supreme Commander Ma Yin
Qianfeng Quanbao	乾封泉寶	qiān fēng quán bǎo	These cash coins are made of iron. According to the histories, because there was much lead and iron in Hunan, Ma Yin took the advice of his minister Gao Yu to cast lead and iron coins at Changsha in 925. Extremely rare bronze specimens are also known.	925	King Wumu of Chu
Qianyuan Zhongbao	乾元重寶	qiān yuán zhòng bǎo	These cash coins bear an inscription that is also found on Tang coins. This small lead coin is thought to have been issued by the Chu kingdom. Similar bronze coins are sometimes attributed to Ma Yin, but could be funerary items.	Unknown	Ma Yin

Later Shu

Cash coins produced by the Later Shu (926–965) include:^[44]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Differentiating features	Years of production	Monarch	Image
Dashu Tongbao	大蜀通寶	dà shǔ tōng bǎo	are attributed to Meng Zhixiang when he became Emperor Gao Zu of Shu in Chengdu in 934. He died three months later. Despite its rarity, some say this coin continued to be cast by his son, Meng Chang, until 937.	934(–937)	Gao Zu
Guangzheng Tongbao	廣政通寶	guǎng zhèng tōng bǎo	These cash coins are either made of bronze or iron. The bronze coins were cast by Meng Chang from the beginning of this period, 938. In 956, iron coins began to be cast to cover additional military expenses.	938–963	Meng Chang

Southern Tang Kingdom

Cash coins manufactured by the Southern Tang Kingdom (937–975) include:^[45]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Differentiating features	Years of production	Monarch
Daqi Tongbao	大齊通寶	dà qí tōng bǎo	These cash coins were said to have been cast by the Prince of Qi or by the founder of the Southern Tang with the original name of the Tang kingdom. Only two specimens were known, and these have now disappeared.	937	Unknown
Baoda Yuanbao	保大元寶	bǎo dà yuán bǎo	This cash coin has on its reverse the character Tian (天) above. They are made of iron and date between. There is also an extremely rare bronze example of this coin.	943–957	Yuan Zong
Yongtong Quanhuo	永通泉貨	yǒng tōng quán huò		959–964	Yuan Zong
Tangguo Tongbao	唐國通寶	tang guó tōng bǎo	The inscriptions of these cash coins could be written in seal, li, and regular script.	959	Yuan Zong
Datang Tongbao	大唐通寶	dà táng tōng bǎo	These coins are all written in li script.	959	Yuan Zong
Kaiyuan Tongbao	開元通寶	kāiyuán tōng bǎo	These versions of the Kaiyuan Tongbao are written in li script and have broader rims.	961	Li Yu

Southern Han Kingdom

The cash coins produced by the Southern Han dynasty were:^[46]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Differentiating features	Years of production	Monarch
Kai Ping yuan bao	開平元寶	kāipíng yuánbǎo	These cash coins were made from lead.	907–910	Liu Yin
Qianheng Tongbao	乾亨通寶	gān hēng tōng bǎo		917–942	Lie Zu
Qianheng Zhongbao	乾亨重寶	gān hēng zhòng bǎo	These cash coins were made from bronze and lead.	917–942	Lie Zu

Crude lead coins

Crude lead cash coins attributed to the Southern Han/Chu area (900–971):

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Differentiating features	Image
Kaiyuan Tongbao	開元通寶	kāiyuán tōng bǎo	These cash coins are based on Tang Dynasty coins. They have a local style with numerous reverse inscriptions which are apparently series numbers.

There is a very great variety of such coins; some have crescents on the reverse. The Kai character sometimes looks like yong (Chinese: 永; pinyin: yǒng). Characters and legends often reversed because the incompetent workmen had not mastered the art of engraving in negative to make the moulds. Some specimens have meaningless characters.

Cash coins with hybrid inscriptions from this same area:

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin
Wu Wu	五五	wǔ wǔ
Wu Wu Wu	五五五	wǔ wǔ wǔ
Wu Wu Wu Wu	五五五五	wǔ wǔ wǔ wǔ
Wu Zhu	五朱	wǔ zhū
Kai Yuan Wu Wu	開元五五	kāiyuán wǔ wǔ

These cash coins are typical of the hybrid inscriptions formed by combinations of inappropriate characters. They also have series numbers on the reverse. Note that the radical "Template:Linktext" is missing from this Wu Zhu (五朱) coin. One variant of the Wu Wu (五五) coin has the Xin dynasty inscription Huo Quan (貨泉) on its reverse.^[47]

You Zhou Autonomous Region

The following cash coins were produced in the You Zhou Autonomous region (which enjoyed virtual independence from the rest of the empire) between 900 and 914:^[48]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Differentiating features
Yong An Yi Shi	永安一十	yǒng'ān yīshí
Yong An Yi Bai	永安一百	yǒng'ān yībǎi
Yong An Wu Bai	永安五百	yǒng'ān wǔbǎi
Yong An Yi Qian	永安一千	yǒng'ān yīqiān	These cash coins are found in either bronze or iron.
Wu Zhu	五銖	wǔ zhū	These Wu Zhu cash coins are made from iron.
Huo Bu (obverse) San Bai (reverse)	貨布 (Obverse) 三百 (reverse)	huò bù (obverse) sānbǎi (reverse)
Shuntian Yuanbao	順天元寶	shùn tiān yuánbǎo	Are made from iron. These poorly made coins are imitations of coins of previous regimes and are attributed to the You Zhou.

Liao dynasty

Liao dynasty coins (like some contemporary Song dynasty coins) can be read top-right-bottom-left (clockwise), but unlike the Song’s coinage never appeared top-bottom-right-left. Liao dynasty era cash coins have appeared in both Chinese and Khitan scripts, but the latter can more accurately be described as a type of Chinese numismatic charms as they weren't meant for circulation.^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]

List of cash coins produced by the Khitans under the Liao dynasty:^[54]^[55]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Years of minting	Emperor
Tian Xian Tong Bao	天顯通寶	天显通宝	927–937	Taizong
Qian Qiu Wan Sui	千秋萬歲	千秋万岁	938	Taizong
Hui Tong Tong Bao	會同通寶	会同通宝	938–947	Taizong
Tian Lu Tong Bao	天祿通寶	天禄通宝	947–951	Shizong
Ying Li Tong Bao	應曆通寶	应历通宝	951–969	Muzong
Bao Ning Tong Bao	保寧通寶	保宁通宝	969–982	Jingzong
Tong He Yuan Bao	統和元寶	統和元宝	983–1011	Shengzong
Chong Xi Tong Bao	重熙通寶	重熙通宝	1032–1055	Xingzong
Qing Ning Tong Bao	清寧通寶	清宁通宝	1055–1064	Daozong
Xian Yong Tong Bao	咸雍通寶	咸雍通宝	1065–1074	Daozong
Da Kang Tong Bao	大康通寶	大康通宝	1074–1084	Daozong
Da Kang Yuan Bao	大康元寶	大康元宝	1074–1084	Daozong
Da An Yuan Bao	大安元寶	大安元宝	1085–1094	Daozong
Shou Chang Yuan Bao	壽昌元寶	寿昌元宝	1095–1101	Daozong
Qian Tong Yuan Bao	乾統元寶	乾统元宝	1101–1110	Tianzuo
Tian Qing Yuan Bao	天慶元寶	天庆元宝	1111–1120	Tianzuo

Northern Song dynasty

The cash coins of the Song dynasty are unique in the aspect that many cash coins of the same era that use the same inscription and have the same nominale value has multiple Chinese calligraphic fonts. Many Emperors of the Song dynasty personally wrote the calligraphy to be inscribed on the cash coin. There are generally three scripts used on Song dynasty era cash coins which include Regular script, Seal script, and Running hand script/Grass script. The reading order of Song dynasty era cash coins exist in top-bottom-right-left and top-right-bottom-left orders.^[56]

List of cash coins produced by the Northern Song dynasty:^[57]^[1]^[3]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Scripts	Period minted	Emperor
Song Yuan Tong Bao	宋元通寶	宋元通宝	Regular script	960–976	Taizu
Tai Ping Tong Bao	太平通寶	太平通宝	Regular script	976–989	Taizong
Chun Hua Yuan Bao	淳化元寶	淳化元宝	Regular script, Seal script, Running script	990–994	Taizong
Zhi Dao Yuan Bao	至道元寶	至道元宝	Regular script, Seal script, Running script	995–997	Taizong
Xian Ping Yuan Bao	咸平元寶	咸平元宝	Regular script	998–1003	Zhenzong
Jing De Yuan Bao	景德元寶	景德元宝	Regular script	1004–1007	Zhenzong
Xiang Fu Tong Bao	祥符通寶	祥符通宝	Regular script, Running script	1008–1016	Zhenzong
Tian Xi Tong Bao	天禧通寶	天禧通宝	Regular script	1017–1022	Zhenzong
Tian Sheng Yuan Bao	天聖元寶	天圣元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1023–1031	Renzong
Ming Dao Tong Bao	明道元寶	明道元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1032–1033	Renzong
Jing You Yuan Bao	景佑元寶	景佑元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1034–1038	Renzong
Huang Song Yuan Bao	皇宋元寶	皇宋元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1039–1054	Renzong
Kang Ding Yuan Bao	康定元寶	康定元宝	Regular script	1040	Renzong
Qing Li Zhong Bao	慶歷重寶	庆历重宝	Regular script	1041–1048	Renzong
Zhi he Tong Bao	至和通寶	至和通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1054–1055	Renzong
Zhi he Yuan Bao	至和元寶	至和元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1054–1055	Renzong
Jia You Tong Bao	嘉佑通寶	嘉佑通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1056–1063	Renzong
Jia You Yuan Bao	嘉佑元寶	嘉佑元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1056–1063	Renzong
Zhi Ping Tong Bao	治平通寶	治平通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1064–1067	Yingzong
Zhi Ping Yuan Bao	治平元寶	治平元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1064–1067	Yingzong
Xi Ning Tong Bao	熙寧通寶	熙宁通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1068–1077	Shenzong
Xi Ning Yuan Bao	熙寧元寶	熙宁元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1068–1077	Shenzong
Xi Ning Zhong Bao	熙寧重寶	熙宁重宝	Regular script, Seal script	1068–1077	Shenzong
Yuan Feng Tong Bao	元豐通寶	元丰通宝	Regular script, Seal script, Running script	1078–1085	Shenzong
Yuan You Tong Bao	元佑通寶	元佑通宝	Seal script	1086–1094	Zhezong
Shao Sheng Tong Bao	紹聖通寶	绍圣通宝	Regular script, Seal script, Running script	1094–1098	Zhezong
Shao Sheng Yuan Bao	紹聖元寶	绍圣元宝	Regular script, Seal script, Running script	1094–1098	Zhezong
Yuan Fu Tong Bao	元符通寶	元符通宝	Regular script, Seal script, Running script	1098–1100	Zhezong
Sheng Song Tong Bao	聖宋通寶	圣宋通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1101	Huizong
Sheng Song Yuan Bao	聖宋元寶	圣宋元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1101	Huizong
Chong Ning Tong Bao	崇寧通寶	崇宁通宝	Regular script	1102–1106	Huizong
Chong Ning Zhong Bao	崇寧重寶	崇宁重宝	Regular script	1102–1106	Huizong
Da Guan Tong Bao	大觀通寶	大观通宝	Regular script	1107–1110	Huizong
Zheng He Tong Bao	政和通寶	政和通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1111–1117	Huizong
Chong He Tong Bao	重和通寶	重和通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1118–1119	Huizong
Xuan He Tong Bao	宣和通寶	宣和通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1119–1125	Huizong
Xuan He Yuan Bao	宣和元寶	宣和元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1119–1125	Huizong
Jing Kang Tong Bao	靖康通寶	靖康通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1126–1127	Qinzong
Jing Kang Yuan Bao	靖康元寶	靖康元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1126–1127	Qinzong

Sui ethnic minority during the Northern Song dynasty

In 2004 a coin produced by the Sui people of Guizhou was discovered dating to the Northern Song dynasty most likely produced between 1008 and 1016, this coin had the inscription dà zhōng xiáng fú (大中祥符) on one side and the word "wealth" written in Sui script on the other side, as this is the only known coin produced by the Sui people it established that they don't have a numismatic tradition like the Han Chinese have.^[58]^[59]^[60]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Years of production	Emperor	Image
Dazhong Xiangfu	大中祥符	1008–1016	Zhenzong

Southern Song dynasty

Under the Southern Song dynasty it became customary to add the date of issue on the reverse of the coin and as copper shortages and phenomena known as "currency famines" (錢荒) plagued the land both iron cash coins and paper money (in the form of Jiaozi, Guanzi, and Huizi notes) became more common leading to a decline of the production of bronze coinage.

List of cash coins produced by the Southern Song dynasty:^[1]^[3]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Scripts	Period minted	Emperor
Jian Yan Tong Bao	建炎通寶	建炎通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1127–1130	Gaozong
Jian Yan Yuan Bao	建炎元寶	建炎元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1127–1130	Gaozong
Jian Yan Zhong Bao	建炎重寶	建炎重宝	Seal script	1127–1130	Gaozong
Shao Xing Tong Bao	紹興通寶	绍兴通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1131–1162	Gaozong
Shao Xing Yuan Bao	紹興元寶	绍兴元宝	Regular script	1131–1162	Gaozong
Long Xing Tong Bao	隆興通寶	隆兴通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1163–1164	Xiaozong
Long Xing Yuan Bao	隆興元寶	隆兴元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1163–1164	Xiaozong
Qian Dao Tong Bao	乾道通寶	干道通宝	Regular script	1165–1173	Xiaozong
Qian Dao Yuan Bao	乾道元寶	干道元宝	Regular script	1165–1173	Xiaozong
Chun Xi Tong Bao	淳熙通寶	淳熙通宝	Regular script	1174–1189	Xiaozong
Chun Xi Yuan Bao	淳熙元寶	淳熙元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1174–1189	Xiaozong
Shao Xi Tong Bao	紹熙通寶	绍熙通宝	Regular script, Seal script	1190–1194	Guangzong
Shao Xi Yuan Bao	紹熙元寶	绍熙元宝	Regular script, Seal script	1190–1194	Guangzong
Qing Yuan Tong Bao	慶元通寶	庆元通宝	Regular script	1195–1200	Ningzong
Qing Yuan Yuan Bao	慶元元寶	庆元元宝	Regular script	1195–1200	Ningzong
Jia Tai Tong Bao	嘉泰通寶	嘉泰通宝	Regular script	1201–1204	Ningzong
Jia Tai Yuan Bao	嘉泰元寶	嘉泰元宝	Regular script	1201–1204	Ningzong
Kai Xi Tong Bao	開禧通寶	开禧通宝	Regular script	1205–1207	Ningzong
Kai Xi Yuan Bao	開禧元寶	开禧元宝	Regular script	1205–1207	Ningzong
Jia Ding Tong Bao	嘉定通寶	嘉定通宝	Regular script	1208–1224	Ningzong
Jia Ding Yuan Bao	嘉定元寶	嘉定元宝	Regular script	1208–1224	Ningzong
Sheng Song Zhong Bao	聖宋重寶	圣宋重宝	Regular script	1210	Ningzong
Bao Qing Yuan Bao	寶慶元寶	宝庆元宝	Regular script	1225–1227	Lizong
Da Song Tong Bao	大宋通寶	大宋通宝	Regular script	1225	Lizong
Da Song Yuan Bao	大宋元寶	大宋元宝	Regular script	1225–1227	Lizong
Shao Ding Tong Bao	紹定通寶	绍定通宝	Regular script	1228–1233	Lizong
Duan Ping Tong Bao	端平通寶	端平通宝	Regular script	1234–1236	Lizong
Duan Ping Yuan Bao	端平元寶	端平元宝	Regular script	1234–1236	Lizong
Duan Ping Zhong Bao	端平重寶	端平重宝	Regular script	1234–1236	Lizong
Jia Xi Tong Bao	嘉熙通寶	嘉熙通宝	Regular script	1237–1240	Lizong
Jia Xi Zhong Bao	嘉熙重寶	嘉熙重宝	Regular script	1237–1240	Lizong
Chun You Tong Bao	淳佑通寶	淳佑通宝	Regular script	1241–1252	Lizong
Chun You Yuan Bao	淳佑元寶	淳佑元宝	Regular script	1241–1252	Lizong
Huang Song Yuan Bao	皇宋元寶	皇宋元宝	Regular script	1253–1258	Lizong
Kai Qing Tong Bao	開慶通寶	开庆通宝	Regular script	1259	Lizong
Jing Ding Yuan Bao	景定元寶	景定元宝	Regular script	1260–1264	Lizong
Xian Chun Yuan Bao	咸淳元寶	咸淳元宝	Regular script	1265–1274	Duzong

Western Xia dynasty

The Tangut Western Xia dynasty produced both cash coins with Chinese and Tangut inscriptions.^[61]^[62]^[63] Despite issuing coins the economy of the Tangut Empire mostly relied on barter which is why Western Xia era coins today are rare.

With Tangut inscriptions

Coins with Tangut inscriptions:^[64]^[65]^[l]

Inscription (Tangut)	Inscription (Mandarin)	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Years of casting	Emperor
śjɨj ljo ljɨ̣ dzjɨj (Template:Tangut)	Fu Sheng Bao Qian	福聖寶錢	福圣宝钱	1053–1056	Yizong
tha nej ljɨ̣ dzjɨj (Template:Tangut)	Da An Bao Qian	大安寶錢	大安宝钱	1074–1084	Huizong
tśhja bio̲ ljɨ̣ dzjɨj (Template:Tangut)	Zhen Guan Bao Qian	貞觀寶錢	贞观宝钱	1101–1113	Chongzong
tśhja mji̲ ljɨ̣ dzjɨj (Template:Tangut)	Zheng De Bao Qian	正德寶錢	正德宝钱	1127–1134	Chongzong
tshjwu ꞏwu ljɨ̣ dzjɨj (Template:Tangut)	Qian You Bao Qian	乾佑寶錢	乾佑宝钱	1170–1193	Renzong
ŋwər ljwu ljɨ̣ dzjɨj (Template:Tangut)	Tian Qing Bao Qian	天慶寶錢	天庆宝钱	1194–1206	Huanzong

With Chinese inscriptions

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Script	Years of casting	Emperor
Da An Tong Bao	大安通寶	大安通宝	Clerical script	1074–1084	Huizong
Yuan De Tong Bao	元德通寶	元德通宝	Clerical script	1119–1126	Chongzong
Da De Tong Bao	大德通寶	大德通宝	Regular script	1135–1139	Chongzong
Tian Sheng Yuan Bao	天盛元寶	天盛元宝	Regular script	1149–1169	Renzong
Qian You Yuan Bao	乾佑元寶	乾佑元宝	Regular script, Semi-cursive script, Seal script^[66]^[67]	1170–1193	Renzong
Tian Qing Yuan Bao	天慶元寶	天庆元宝	Regular script	1194–1206	Huanzong
Huang Jian Yuan Bao	皇建元寶	皇建元宝	Regular script	1210–1211	Xiangzong
Guang Ding Yuan Bao	光定元寶	光定元宝	Semi-cursive script, Seal script	1211–1223	Shenzong

Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

Cash coins produced by the Jurchen Jin dynasty compared to earlier Liao dynasty coinage are both of higher quality, and quantity; this is because the Jurchens chose to model their coins more closely after the Song's both in production as superficially in its calligraphic style.

List of cash coins produced by the Jurchen Jin dynasty:^[1]^[3]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Scripts	Years of minting	Emperor
Zheng Long Yuan Bao	正隆元寶	正隆元宝	Regular script	1158–1161	Wanyan Liang
Da Ding Tong Bao	大定通寶	大定通宝	Regular script	1178–1189	Shizong
Tai He Tong Bao	泰和通寶	泰和通宝	Regular script	1204–1209	Zhangzong
Tai He Zhong Bao	泰和重寶	泰和重宝	Regular script, Seal script	1204–1209	Zhangzong
Chong Qing Tong Bao	崇慶通寶	崇庆通宝	Regular script	1212–1213	Wanyan Yongji
Chong Qing Yuan Bao	崇慶元寶	崇庆元宝	Regular script	1212–1213	Wanyan Yongji
Zhi Ning Yuan Bao	至寧元寶	至宁元宝	Regular script	1213	Wanyan Yongji
Zhen You Tong Bao	貞祐通寶	贞佑通宝	Regular script	1213–1216	Xuanzong
Zhen You Yuan Bao	貞祐元寶	贞佑元宝	Regular script	1213–1216	Xuanzong

Great Qi dynasty

In 1130 during the Jin–Song Wars the Jin dynasty had set up a second puppet state called “Da Qi” (after the failed first puppet state, Da Chu), this puppet state briefly produced its own coins until it was defeated by the Song in 1137.^[68]^[69]

Coins produced by the brief Jurchen vassal state include:

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Script	Emperor
Fu Chang Tong Bao	阜昌通寶	阜昌通宝	Regular script, Seal script	Liu Yu
Fu Chang Yuan Bao	阜昌元寶	阜昌元宝	Regular script, Seal script	Liu Yu
Fu Chang Zhong Bao	阜昌重寶	阜昌重宝	Regular script, Seal script	Liu Yu

Mongol Empire (prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty)

Cash coins issued by the Mongols before 1230:^[70]

Obverse inscription (Romanisation)	Reverse	Notes
大朝通寶 (Dachao Tongbao)	Blank	This coins was possibly cast between 1206 and 1227 in Karakorum by Genghis Khan as "大朝" was a name the Mongols gave themselves. The coin is mostly found made from silver.
大朝金合 (Dachao Jinhe)	Blank	The attribution of this coins to the Mongols is doubtful as the name "大朝" was used by various countries that bordered China. This coin was first mentioned in the Record of Coins which was published around 1094. Peng Xinwei attributes this coin to the Liao dynasty.
支鈔半分 (Zhichao Banfen)	Blank	Zhichao Banfen (支鈔半分) could be translated as "Exchange for paper money half a fen [of silver]". The inscription could alternatively read Jiaochao Banfen (交鈔半分).

Cash coins issued by the Mongol Empire while it occupied Jin dynasty territory (circa 1230–1280):^[70]

Obverse inscription (Romanisation)	Reverse	Notes
大觀通寶 (Daguan Tongbao)	Blank	This cash coins has rather broad rims.
大觀通寶 (Daguan Tongbao)	中 (Zhong)	The "中" is written in seal script and is above the square center hole on the reverse.
大觀通寶 (Daguan Tongbao)	半錢 (Ban Qian)	The reverse inscription indicates that this cash coin had a nominal value of half a qián of silver.
大觀通寶 (Daguan Tongbao)	Blank	This is a cash coin of diminutive size with the Chinese character "觀" written in an imperfect way.
大觀通寶 (Daguan Tongbao)	Dot pattern	The reverse of this coin is completely covered with dots.
大觀通寶 (Daguan Tongbao)	Blank	The inscription is written in a very barbarous manner.

Yuan dynasty

Under Mongol rule paper money such as the Chao banknotes completely replaced copper coinage, during times of inflation Temple coins issued by Buddhist temples became the de facto currency. Under Külüg Khan a large number of cash coins were issued to pay for the state's expenditures but these got phased out in favour of paper currency, it wasn't until the reign of Toghon Temür that the Mongols attempted to produce cash coins at a large scale again.

List of cash coins issued by the Mongols during Yuan dynasty:^[71]^[72]^[m]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Script	Khagan (Mongolian name)	Emperor (Mandarin Chinese name)
Zhongtong Yuanbao	中統元寶	Chinese script (Regular script and Seal script), Mongol script	Kublai Khan	Shìzǔ (Template:Linktext)
Zhiyuan Tongbao	至元通寶	Chinese script, 'Phags-pa script	Kublai Khan	Shìzǔ (世祖)
Yuanzhen Tongbao	元貞通寶	Chinese script, 'Phags-pa script	Temür Khan	Chéngzōng (Template:Linktext)
Yuanzhen Yuanbao	元貞元寶	Chinese script, Mongol script	Temür Khan	Chéngzōng (成宗)
Dade Tongbao	大德通寶	Chinese script, 'Phags-pa script, Mongol script	Temür Khan	Chéngzōng (成宗)
Zhida Tongbao	至大通寶	Chinese script, 'Phags-pa script, Mongol script	Külüg Khan	Wǔzōng (Template:Linktext)
Zhida Yuanbao	至大元寶	Chinese script	Külüg Khan	Wǔzōng (武宗)
Dayuan Tongbao	大元通寶	Chinese script, 'Phags-pa script, Mongol script	Külüg Khan	Wǔzōng (武宗)
Huangqing Yuanbao	皇慶元寶	Chinese script	Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan	Rénzōng (Template:Linktext)
Yanyou Tongbao	延祐通寶	Chinese script	Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan	Rénzōng (仁宗)
Yanyou Yuanbao	延祐元寶	Chinese script	Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan	Rénzōng (仁宗)
Zhizhi Tongbao	至治通寶	Chinese script	Gegeen Khan	Yīngzōng (Template:Linktext)
Zhizhi Yuanbao	至治元寶	Chinese script	Gegeen Khan	Yīngzōng (英宗)
Taiding Tongbao	泰定通寶	Chinese script	Yesün Temür	Jìnzōng (Template:Linktext)
Taiding Yuanbao	泰定元寶	Chinese script	Yesün Temür	Jìnzōng (晉宗)
Zhihe Yuanbao	致和元寶	Chinese script	Yesün Temür	Jìnzōng (晉宗)
Tianli Yuanbao	天曆元寶	Chinese script	Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür	Wénzōng (Template:Linktext)
Zhishun Yuanbao	至順元寶	Chinese script	Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür	Wénzōng (文宗)
Yuantong Yuanbao	元統元寶	Chinese script	Toghon Temür	Huìzōng (Template:Linktext)
Zhiyuan Tongbao	至元通寶	Chinese script, Mongol script, Uighur script, Jurchen script, Tangut script^[73]	Toghon Temür	Huìzōng (惠宗)
Zhiyuan Yuanbao	至元元寶	Chinese script	Toghon Temür	Huìzōng (惠宗)
Muqing Tongbao	穆清通寶	Chinese script	Toghon Temür	Huìzōng (惠宗)
Zhizheng Tongbao	至正通寶	Chinese script, 'Phags-pa script, Mongol script	Toghon Temür	Huìzōng (惠宗)
Zhizheng Zhibao	至正之寶	Chinese script	Toghon Temür	Huìzōng (惠宗)

Rebels of the Yuan dynasty

During the Red Turban rebellion organised by the White Lotus society; many of its leaders proclaimed their own kingdoms and empires that ruled over different regions of China, the most successful of these was Zhu Yuanzhang’s Ming dynasty which would unify China. Though the majority of these countries were short-lived some did produce their own coinage.^[74]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Denominations	Years of mintage	Monarch	Rebel faction
Longfeng Tongbao	龍鳳通寶	龙凤通宝	1文, 2文, 3文, 5文	1355–1366	Han Lin’er (韓林兒)	Early Red Turban rebellion
Tianyou Tongbao	天佑通寶	天佑通宝	1文, 2文, 3文, 5文	1354–1357	Zhang Shicheng (張士誠)	Kingdom of Great(er) Zhou (大周)
Tianqi Tongbao	天啟通寶	天启通宝	1文, 2文, 3文	1358	Xu Shouhui (徐壽輝)	Tianwan (天完)
Tianding Tongbao	天定通寶	天定通宝	1文, 2文, 3文	1359–1360	Xu Shouhui (徐壽輝)	Tianwan (天完)
Dayi Tongbao	大義通寶	大义通宝	1文, 2文, 3文	1360–1361	Chen Youliang (陳友諒)	Kingdom of Dahan (大漢)

Ming dynasty

Under the Ming dynasty the policy of predominantly using paper money (such as the Da Ming Baochao banknotes) which was started under the Mongols would continue until 1505 when Spanish dollars and other silver coins became the dominant currency. Native production of cash coins had ceased between 1375 to 1376, from 1387 until 1379, from 1393 (as paper money superseded cast coinage completely) until 1433, and finally from 1435 until 1503.^[75]

Yongle Tongbao cash coins were mostly cast for foreign trade.^[76]

From the Ming dynasty onwards only period titles were used for coin inscriptions and these period titles would (usually) remain constant throughout the reign of an Emperor.^[2]^[1]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Years of production	Emperor
Dazhong Tongbao	大中通寶	大中通宝	1361–1393	Zhu Yuanzhang
Hongwu Tongbao	洪武通寶	洪武通宝	1367–1393	Hongwu Emperor
Yongle Tongbao	永樂通寶	永乐通宝	1408–1424	Yongle Emperor
Xuande Tongbao	宣德通寶	宣德通宝	1426–1435	Xuande Emperor
Hongzhi Tongbao	弘治通寶	弘治通宝	1488–1505	Hongzhi Emperor
Jiajing Tongbao	嘉靖通寶	嘉靖通宝	1527–1567	Jiajing Emperor
Jiajing Anbao	嘉靖安寶	嘉靖安宝	1527–1567	Jiajing Emperor
Longqing Tongbao	隆慶通寶	隆庆通宝	1567–1572	Longqing Emperor
Wanli Tongbao	萬曆通寶	万历通宝	1572–1620	Wanli Emperor
Wanli Nianzao^[77]	萬曆年造	万历年造	1572–1620	Wanli Emperor
Taichang Tongbao	泰昌通寶	泰昌通宝	1620	Taichang Emperor
Tianqi Tongbao	天啟通寶	天启通宝	1620–1627	Tianqi Emperor
Chongzhen Tongbao	崇禎通寶	崇祯通宝	1628–1644	Chongzhen Emperor

Note that under the reign of the Zhengde Emperor no copper-alloy cash coins were minted however a very large number of Zhengde Tongbao (正德通寶) coin amulets exist, the production of these coin-like amulets started from the late Ming dynasty period and these amulets are still being produced today.

Guizhou local issues

During the Hongzhi period from 1488 until 1505 some Tribal Commissioners in the province of Guizhou issued their own cash coins, rather than being bases on reign titles the inscriptions were based on place names.^[78]^[79]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Emperor
Shuiguan Tongbao	水官通寶	水官通宝	Hongzhi Emperor
Taiguan Tongbao	太官通寶	太官通宝	Hongzhi Emperor
Huoguan Tongbao	火官通寶	火官通宝	Hongzhi Emperor
Dading Tongbao	大定通寶	大定通宝	Hongzhi Emperor
Taiding Tongbao	太定通寶	太定通宝	Hongzhi Emperor
Taizi Tongbao	太子通寶	太子通宝	Hongzhi Emperor

Yunnan local issues

These cash coins were issued in the province of Yunnan under the reign of the Hongzhi Emperor:

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Place of issue	Emperor	Image
Huoping Xinbao	火平新寶	火平新宝	Dali	Hongzhi Emperor

Ming-Qing transitional period

This is a list of cash coins produced during the transition from Ming to Qing.

Southern Ming dynasty

List of cash coins produced by the Southern Ming dynasty:^[80]^[81]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Years of production	Emperor
Hongguang Tongbao	弘光通寶	弘光通宝	1644–1645	Hongguang Emperor
Daming Tongbao	大明通寶	大明通宝	1644–1646	Zhu Changfang
Longwu Tongbao	隆武通寶	隆武通宝	1645–1646	Longwu Emperor
Yongli Tongbao	永曆通寶	永历通宝	1646–1659	Yongli Emperor

Kingdom of Tungning (Taiwan)

Under Koxinga the Kingdom of Tungning (which was a state loyal to the Southern Ming dynasty) had ordered Yongli Tongbao cash coins to be produced (presumably) in Nagasaki, these coins circulated exclusively in Taiwan. The production of these coins lasted until 1682.^[82]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Years of production	Kings	Image
Yongli Tongbao	永曆通寶	永历通宝	1651–1682	All

Rebels

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Years of production	Monarch
Yongchang Tongbao	永昌通寶	永昌通宝	1644–1645	Li Zicheng
Dashun Tongbao^[83]^[84]	大順通寶	大顺通宝	1644–1647	Zhang Xianzhong
Xiwang Shanggong^[85]	西王賞功	西王赏功	1644–1647	Zhang Xianzhong
Xingchao Tongbao^[86]	興朝通寶	兴朝通宝	1648–1657	Sun Kewang^[87]
Yumin Tongbao	裕民通寶	裕民通宝	1674–1676	Geng Jingzhong
Liyong Tongbao	利用通寶	利用通宝	1674–1678	Wu Sangui
Zhaowu Tongbao	昭武通寶	昭武通宝	1678	Wu Sangui
Honghua Tongbao	洪化通寶	洪化通宝	1679–1681	Wu Shifan

Later Jin dynasty (1616–1636)

The following coins were issued by the Jurchens (later Manchus) before the establishment of the Qing dynasty, these coins were cast when the Jurchen state was known as the Later Jin dynasty:^[88]^[89]^[90]

Inscription	Latin script	Denominations	Years of mintage	Khan
Template:ManchuSibeUnicode	Abkai fulingga han jiha	1 wén	1616–1626	Abkai fulingga Khan
天命通寳	Tiān Mìng Tōng Bǎo	1 wén	1616–1626	Abkai fulingga Khan
Template:ManchuSibeUnicode	Sure han ni jiha	10 wén	1627–1643	Sure Khan

A cash coin with the inscription "Tiancong Tongbao" (天聰通寳) reported to be in the denominations of 1 wén and 10 wén has also been attributed to Hong Taiji, however the authenticity of this coin is doubtful.^[91]

Qing dynasty

Qing dynasty era cash coins generally bear the reign title of the Emperor in Chinese characters, with only a single change of reign title occurring with the Qixiang Emperor becoming the Tongzhi Emperor by decision of his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi.^[1]^[92]^[93]

Inscription (Hànyǔ Pīnyīn)	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Denominations	Years of mintage	Emperor
Shùn Zhì Tōng Bǎo	順治通寶	顺治通宝	1 wén	1643–1661	Shunzhi Emperor
Kāng Xī Tōng Bǎo	康熙通寶	康熙通宝	1 wén	1661–1722	Kangxi Emperor
Yōng Zhèng Tōng Bǎo	雍正通寶	雍正通宝	1 wén	1722–1735	Yongzheng Emperor
Qián Lóng Tōng Bǎo	乾隆通寶	乾隆通宝	1 wén, 10 wén	1735–1796 (1912)^[n]	Qianlong Emperor
Jiā Qìng Tōng Bǎo	嘉慶通寶	嘉庆通宝	1 wén	1796–1820	Jiaqing Emperor
Dào Guāng Tōng Bǎo	道光通寶	道光通宝	1 wén, 5 wén, 10 wén	1820–1850	Daoguang Emperor
Xián Fēng Tōng Bǎo	咸豐通寶	咸丰通宝	1 wén, 5 wén, 10 wén, 50 wén, 100 wén	1850–1861	Xianfeng Emperor
Xián Fēng Zhòng Bǎo	咸豐重寶	咸丰重宝	4 wén, 5 wén, 8 wén, 10 wén, 20 wén, 30 wén, 40 wén, 50 wén, 100 wén	1850–1861	Xianfeng Emperor
Xián Fēng Yuán Bǎo	咸豐元寶	咸丰元宝	80 wén, 100 wén, 200 wén, 300 wén, 500 wén, 1000 wén	1850–1861	Xianfeng Emperor
Qí Xiáng Tōng Bǎo	祺祥通寶	祺祥通宝	1 wén	1861	Tongzhi Emperor
Qí Xiáng Zhòng Bǎo	祺祥重寶	祺祥重宝	10 wén	1861	Tongzhi Emperor
Tóng Zhì Tōng Bǎo	同治通寶	同治通宝	1 wén, 5 wén, 10 wén	1862–1875	Tongzhi Emperor
Tóng Zhì Zhòng Bǎo	同治重寶	同治重宝	4 wén, 10 wén	1862–1875	Tongzhi Emperor
Guāng Xù Tōng Bǎo	光緒通寶	光绪通宝	1 wén, 10 wén	1875–1908	Guangxu Emperor
Guāng Xù Zhòng Bǎo	光緒重寶	光绪重宝	5 wén, 10 wén	1875–1908	Guangxu Emperor
Xuān Tǒng Tōng Bǎo	宣統通寶	宣传通宝	1 wén, 10 wén	1909–1911	Xuantong Emperor

Xinjiang issues

Certain parts of Xinjiang under Qing rule had a monetary system separate from that was separate from that of China proper, this was largely due to the fact that the area which formerly belonged to Dzungaria paid with pūl coins which were made from almost pure copper, when some these pūl coins were melted down to make "red cash coins" the pūl-system was essentially continued and 1 "red cash coin" had a value of 10 regular cash coins. Another differentiating feature of Xinjiang as a whole was that under the Jiaqing Emperor it was ordered that 1 in 5 coins produced in Xinjiang should bear the inscription Qianlong Tongbao (乾隆通寶) to honour the Qianlong Emperor, and celebrate his conquest of the region. New obverse inscriptions were introduced by the Kucha mint during the early twentieth century however the production of "red cash coins" with these new inscriptions didn't last very long as they featured only two different dates from the Chinese cyclical calendar during the Guangxu era and the Kucha mint closed in 1909.

The following "red cash coins" with new inscriptions were produced by the Kucha mint in Xinjiang:^[94]^[95]

Inscription	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	Denominations	Years of mintage	Emperor	Image
Guangxu Dingwei	光緒丁未	光绪丁未	10 wén	1907	Guangxu Emperor
Guangxu Wushen	光緒戊申	光绪戊申	10 wén	1908	Guangxu Emperor

Rashidin Khan Khoja

Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

In 1850 the Taiping Rebellion was started by the head of the God worshippers Hong Xiuquan who founded the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, this rebellion lasted until 1864. Although very little documentation exists about the coinage manufactured by the Taiping rebels, it is known that in June 1853 the occupying Taiping rebels ordered copper workers in Tianjing (present day Nanjing) with the skills to cast coins to open new furnaces for the production of cash coins with the inscription Tianguo Shengbao that were reported to be "the size of foreign coins" (Mexican pesos), these coins were reported to be of very poor workmanship and their production was quickly discontinued and although no coins fitting this description are extend it is known that Taiping rebels in other areas and provinces did cast coinage.

The following cash coins are known to have been cast by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom:^[98]

Obverse inscription (Romanised)	Reverse inscription (Romanised)	Denominations	Years of production
天囯 (Tianguo)	通寳 (Tongbao)	10 wén	1853–1855
天囯 (Tianguo)	聖寶 (Shengbao)	10 wén	1856–1860
天囯聖寶 (Tianguo Shengbao)	太平 (Taiping)	1 wén	1858–1864
天囯聖寶 (Tianguo Shengbao)		5 wén	1850s
太平天囯 (Taiping Tianguo)	聖寶 (Shengbao)	1 wén, 5 wén, 10 wén, 50 wén	1860–1862
天囯太平 (Tianguo Taiping)	聖寶 (Shengbao)	1 wén	1861–1864
太平聖寶 (Taiping Shengbao)	天囯 (Tianguo)	1 wén, 5 wén	1861–1864
太平聖宝 (Taiping Shengbao)^[2]	天囯 (Tianguo)		1860s
太平 (Taiping)^[99]^[p]	聖寶 (Shengbao)		1860s

Heaven and Earth Society, Shanghai Small Swords Society, and other secret societies during the Taiping rebellion

At the time of the Taiping rebellion a large number of secret societies such as the Heaven and Earth Society took advantage of the chaos and started to flourish, these secret societies all claimed to want to overthrow the Qing dynasty and restore the Ming dynasty, for this reason many of the coins cast by these secret societies contain hidden messages such as some of them containing characters from the reign titles of Ming dynasty emperors.^[100]

Shanghai Small Swords Society

The Shanghai Small Swords Society under the leadership of Liu Lichuan seized control of the city of Shanghai in September 1853 and awarded themselves the period title of "Tianyun" (天運), as Shanghai had a lot of gold and silver but not much cash coins the rebels confiscated all scrap copper they could find and this was all cast into cash coins with the inscription "Taiping Tongbao" (太平通寶) on the obverse and a sun and a crescent on the reverse, the sun (日) and moon (月) symbolised their intent on restoring the Ming (明). As merchants who traded with Shanghai entered the Qing those found carrying cash coins issued by rebels were arrested and put on trial and after a few were executed the Shanghai Small Swords society decided that these coins were essentially useless and decided to cast coins based on the Xianfeng reign title.^[101]

Obverse inscription (Romanised)	Reverse inscription (Romanised)	Calligraphic style	Years of production
太平通寶 (Taiping Tongbao)		Northern Song era Li script	1854–1855
太平通寶 (Taiping Tongbao)	Crescent (moon) above. 明 (Ming) below.	Northern Song era Li script	1854–1855
太平通寶 (Taiping Tongbao)	Sun (circle) above, Crescent (moon) below.	Contemporary regular script	1854–1855
太平通寶 (Taiping Tongbao)	Template:ManchuSibeUnicode (Boo Yūn)	Contemporary regular script	1854–1855

Other secret societies

Obverse inscription (Romanised)	Reverse inscription (Romanised)	Years of production	Secret society
太平通寶 (Taiping Tongbao)	文 (Wen) above.	1858–1864	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
太平通寶 (Taiping Tongbao)	文 (Wen) sideways right.	1858–1864	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
開元通寶 (Kaiyuan Tongbao)	武 (Wu) above.	1858–1864	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
開元通寶 (Kaiyuan Tongbao)	武 (Wu) sideways right.	1858–1864	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
天朝通寶 (Tianchao Tongbao)	永 (Yong) above.	1858–1864	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
天朝通寶 (Tianchao Tongbao)	永 (Yong) upside down below.	1858–1864	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
黃帝通寶 (Huangdi Tongbao)	聖 (Sheng) above.	1858–1864	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
黃帝通寶 (Huangdi Tongbao)	聖 (Sheng) sideways right.	1858–1864	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
黃帝通寶 (Huangdi Tongbao)	Template:ManchuSibeUnicode 浙 (Boo Zhe)	1858–1864	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
義記金錢 (Yiji Jinqian)^[102]^[103]	Two intertwined lozenges on the right and left side.	1858–1863	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
義記金錢 (Yiji Jinqian)^[104]	震忠團練 (Zhenzhong Tuanlian)	1858–1863	Small Sword and Heaven and Earth Societies (天地會)
明道通寶 (Mingdao Tongbao)	天 (Tian)	1850s	The Triad Society (三合會)

Other contemporary rebellions

Other than secret societies several other rebellions cast their own coinages contemporary to the Taiping rebellion, in Guizhou the rebel Zhang Baoshan who claimed decent from the Hongwu Emperor is said by David Hartill to have cast the Sitong Tongbao (嗣統通寶) cash coins according to two references. Li Wenmao who was the leader of the Triad Society in the province of Guangdong proclaimed half to be "the King who shall restore peace" (平靖王) in March of 1857 but his rebellion got suppressed by the Qing in 1858. The coinage cast by Li Wenmao often contains the character "勝" (victory or to vanquish) which is often found in lodges of Tiandihui groups creating the inscription "勝寶" (victorious treasure or vanquishing treasure), meanwhile as the guerilla tactics of the Guangdong Triad relied on having their forces be divided into a "left flank", "right flank", "middle flank", "front flank", and "rear flank" this is reflected in the reverse inscriptions of the coins cast by this rebellion as "营" (garrison or camp) is accompanied by which flank the garrison belonged to.^[105]

Obverse inscription (Romanised)	Reverse inscription (Romanised)	Years of production	Rebel leader
平靖通寶 (Pingjing Tongbao)	中 (Zhong) in seal script on the right.	1857–1858	Li Wenmao (李文茂)
平靖勝寶 (Pingjing Shengbao)	中营 (Zhongying)	1857–1858	Li Wenmao (李文茂)
平靖勝寶 (Pingjing Shengbao)	前营 (Qianying)	1857–1858	Li Wenmao (李文茂)
平靖勝寶 (Pingjing Shengbao)	後营 (Houying)	1857–1858	Li Wenmao (李文茂)
平靖勝寶 (Pingjing Shengbao)	左营 (Zuoying)	1857–1858	Li Wenmao (李文茂)
平靖勝寶 (Pingjing Shengbao)	右营 (Youying)	1857–1858	Li Wenmao (李文茂)
平靖勝寶 (Pingjing Shengbao)	御林軍 (Yulinjun)	1857–1858	Li Wenmao (李文茂)
平靖勝寶 (Pingjing Shengbao)	長勝軍 (Changshengjun)	1857–1858	Li Wenmao (李文茂)
嗣統通寶 (Sitong Tongbao)		1860–1863	Zhang Baoshan (張保山)

Republic of China

Chinese cash coins continued to be produced into the first year of the Republic of China until their production was completely phased out in 1912. A large number of trial coins were also cast, however these weren't ever officially issued.

The following cash coins were cast during the Republic of China in 1912:^[106]

Inscription (Obverse, Reverse)	Traditional Chinese (Obverse, Reverse)	Simplified Chinese (Obverse, Reverse)	Issuing office
Fujian Tongbao, 1 cash	福建通寶，一文	福建通宝，一文	Fujian province
Fujian Tongbao, 2 cash	福建通寶，二文	福建通宝，二文	Fujian province
Minguo Tongbao, Dongchuan	民國通寶，東川	民国通宝，东川	Dongchuan, Yunnan
Minguo Tongbao, 10 cash	民國通寶，當十	民国通宝，当十	Dongchuan, Yunnan

Notes

↑ Date of launch.
↑ A version of this coin exists with the inscription reversed.
↑ A version of this coin exists with the inscription reversed.
↑ "Yuan Fa" (圜法) was a contemporary term for early round coinage.
↑ As this was the first coin with a square hole this could be considered to be the first "true" Chinese cash coin. This inscription was formerly read as "Yi Dao" (一刀, "one knife"). A version exists where the inscription is reversed, and one where the character "吉" (jí, "auspicious") is on its reverse side.
↑ The "Liu" (六) was formerly read as "Bao" (寶, "treasure").
↑ Could alternatively be read as "兩錙".
↑ Some historical records state that San Zhu cash coins were produced between 140 BC until 136 BC.
↑ This is presumed based on archeological evidence.
↑ This is the first recorded use of a period title on a Chinese cash coin.
↑ Only one specimen of this cash coin is known to exist.
↑ The transliterations are those from Tangutologist Li Fanwen, as opposed to David Hartill's usage "Lee Ndzen" and similar phonetics which are common in the numismatics community.
↑ Chinese, and 'Phags-pa scripts would generally appear on the obverse of these coins, while Mongol script would appear on the reverse and would serve as a mint mark (and in one instance the Jurchen, Uighur, and Tangut scripts); Kublai Khan's Zhong Tong Yuan Bao (中統元寶) was the only coin that contained Seal script, all other Chinese inscriptions during the Mongol period were written in regular script
↑ In Xinjiang coins bearing the inscription Qián Lóng Tōng Bǎo (乾隆通寶) continued to be produced until the fall of the Qing dynasty to commemorate the regions annexation under the Qianlong Emperor, 1 in every 5 coins cast in Xinjiang bear this inscription regardless of era.
↑ The characters on this series are larger than the previous one which featured rather small Arabic writing.
↑ These are perhaps the rarest of all cash coins issued by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.

References

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Numis' Numismatic Encyclopedia. A reference list of 5000 years of Chinese coinage. (Numista) Written on December 9, 2012 • Last edit: June 13, 2013. Retrieved: 02 August 2018.
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Chinese coins – 中國錢幣 (in en). Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture) (16 November 2016). Retrieved on 2 August 2018.
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d Charms.ru Coincidences of Vietnam and China cash coins legends. Francis Ng, People's Republic of China, Thuan D. Luc, United States, and Vladimir A. Belyaev, Russia March–June, 1999 Retrieved: 17 June 2017.
↑ Chinese Cast Coins - ANCIENT CHINESE COINAGE - 700 BC TO 255 BC. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.
↑ huanqian 圜錢, round coins of the Warring States and the Qin Periods. (in en). By Ulrich Theobald (Chinaknowledge - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art). (24 June 2016). Retrieved on 4 September 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 80
↑ Cao Guicen (曹桂岑) (1998). "Huanqian (圜錢)", in Tang Jiahong (唐嘉弘), ed. Zhongguo gudai dianzhang zhidu cidian (中國古代典章制度大辭典) (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou guji chubanshe), 324. (in Mandarin Chinese)
↑ Chen Dewei (陳德維), ed. (1992). Shichang da cidian (市場大辭典) (Beijing: Zhongguo kexue jishu chubanshe), Vol. 2, 977. (in Mandarin Chinese)
↑ Guo Tiexuan (郭鐵宣) (1993). "Huanqian (圜錢)", in Shi Quanchang (石泉長), ed. Zhonghua baike yaolan 中華百科要覽 (Shenyang: Liaoning renmin chubanshe), 137. (in Mandarin Chinese)
↑ Li Zhaochao (李召朝) (1997). "Huanqian (圜錢)", in Men Kui (門巋), Zhang Yanjin (張燕瑾), ed. Zhonghua guocui da cidian (中華國粹大辭典) (Xianggang: Guoji wenhua chuban gongsi), 103. (in Mandarin Chinese)
↑ Zhou Fazeng (周發增), Chen Longtao (陳隆濤), Qi Jixiang (齊吉祥), ed. (1988). Zhongguo gudai zhengzhi zhidu shi cidian (中國古代政治制度史辭典) (Beijing: Shoudu shifan daxue chubanshe), 345. (in Mandarin Chinese)
↑ Chinese Cast Coins - ANCIENT CHINESE COINAGE - 255 BC TO AD 221. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.
↑ The Numismatic Legacy of Wang Mang, AD 9 - 23 (Ancient Cast Chinese Coins Series - Lidai Guqian) by Heinz Gratzer and A.M. Fishman. Published: 20 March 2017. ISBN 1540437299.
↑ Ancient Chinese Coins: Xin Dynasty Normal Coins. (in en). Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives). (2006). Retrieved on 3 September 2018.
↑ Ancient Chinese Coins: Xin Dynasty Shuiyin Gu. (in en). Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives). (2006). Retrieved on 3 September 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 86–90
↑ Wu Zhu – One of the longest lived coin types. (in en). by Bob Reis (Professional Coin Grading Service - Collectors Universe). (17 July 2000). Retrieved on 2 September 2018.
↑ Khotan lead coin. (in en). Vladimir Belyaev (Chinese Coinage Web Site). (3 December 1999). Retrieved on 2 September 2018.
↑ Ancient Khotan. (in en). by Stein Márk Aurél (hosted on Wikimedia Commons). (1907). Retrieved on 2 September 2018.
↑ Cribb, Joe, "The Sino-Kharosthi Coins of Khotan: Their Attribution and Relevance to Kushan Chronology: Part 1", Numismatic Chronicle Vol. 144 (1984), pp. 128–152; and Cribb, Joe, "The Sino-Kharosthi Coins of Khotan: Their Attribution and Relevance to Kushan Chronology: Part 2", Numismatic Chronicle Vol. 145 (1985), pp. 136–149.
↑ ^a ^b Hartill, 2005
↑ Xinjiang, Qiuzi Kingdom - Bilingual Cash Coins. (in en). By Vladimir Belyaev (Chinese Coinage Website - Charm.ru). (11 February 2002). Retrieved on 25 August 2018.
↑ Jen, David Chinese Cash: Identification and Price Guide, 340 p, 2000.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 94
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 98
↑ Ancient Chinese Coins: Later Wu Zhu. (in en). Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives). (2006). Retrieved on 1 September 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 99–101
↑ Chinese Cast Coins - A TIME OF DISUNITY. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 102
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 101
↑ Chinese Cast Coins - MEDIEVAL CHINESE COINS - THE SUI, T'ANG AND POST TANG DYNASTIES. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 103–110
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 111
↑ A Cash-like Coin of Uyghur Qaghan Boquq. (in en). Vladimir Belyaev, François Thierry de Crussol, and Dr. V.N. Nastich (Chinese Coinage Web Site). (5 September 2000). Retrieved on 1 September 2018.
↑ iCollector.com – UYGHUR KHAGANATE: Boquq khaqan, 795-808, AE cash (2.53g), written in Uyghur script, words reading from right to left: KWYL PYLK' - TNKRY -PWXWX `WYXWR - X'X'N (Kol bilga Tangri Boquq Uigur qagan) / `YL TWTMYS - YRLXYNK', nice patination, VF, RRR, ex Nicholas Rhodes Collection. Retrieved: 01 September 2018.
↑ Les Monnies de Boquq Qaghan des Ouighours (795-808) by François Thierry de Crussol. (in French)
↑ Dong Qingxuan, Jiang Qixiang Xinjiang Numismatics, Hong Kong, 1991, p.25. (in Mandarin Chinese)
↑ Xinjiang - Western Uyghur Kaganat - "Xizhou Huihu" Cash Coin. (in en). Vladimir Belyaev and François Thierry de Crussol (Chinese Coinage Web Site). (5 September 2000). Retrieved on 9 February 2002.
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d Hartill, 2005, p. 113.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 113–114.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 115.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 116-117.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 117.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 118.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 119–120.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 121-123.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 122
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 123–124.
↑ Gao Han-ming "Jianming Guqian Cidian" ("Short Dictionary of Ancient Cash Coins"), in Chinese.
↑ Wan Young-Jun, Li Guohui "New gold coin with Kidan inscription found", Inner Mongolia Ancient Financial Research Journal, 1992, issue No.1, p.46. (in Mandarin Chinese).
↑ Chinese Coinage Website (Charms.ru) The Liao Dynasty Cash Coin with Kidan Inscription by Vladimir A. Belyaev, Published: Last updated: 18 June 2002 Retrieved: 18 June 2017.
↑ Sun Jimin (孫繼民) (1994). "內蒙古剋什剋騰旗發現契丹大字金銀錢". Kaogu 考古 (2): 179. ISSN 0453-2899.
↑ Chinese Cast Coins - MEDIEVAL CHINESE COINS - TARTAR, MONGOL, MING DYNASTIES - (A.D. 960 to 1644). (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.
↑ Charms.ru Coins of the Liao Dynasty (Ch'i-tan, Tartar) a.d.907-1125 by Vladimir A. Belyaev (Moscow), Russia Retrieved: 24 June 2017.
↑ Pei Yuan-Bo The Liao Dynasty Coins Inscribed ‘Ten Thousand Years’. Published: 10 December 2016. Retrieved: 19 June 2017.
↑ Error: title= and url= must be specified (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.
↑ Northern Song Dynasty Cash Variety Guide, Volume 1 Fugo Senshi - Norman F. Gorny, 2001.
↑ Coins and Charms of the Shui Nationality.. Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture) (1 June 2013). Retrieved on 14 May 2018.
↑ Pan Chaolin (潘朝霖) - Guizhou University for Nationalities (贵州民族学院).
↑ Qi Geng 贵州水族的古老文字和待解之迷。2009-03-17 11:20. Retrieved: 14 May 2018. (in Mandarin Chinese using Simplified Chinese characters)
↑ 1994. “西夏的衡制與幣制 Xixia de hengzhi yu bizhi (The weight and coin systems of the West Xia)” 《中國錢幣》 Zhongguo qianbi / China Numanistics 1994.1: 3-8,17, 81 (in Mandarin)
↑ 2002. “西夏货币制度概述 (The Outline of monetary system of West Xia dynasty).” 《中國錢幣》 Zhongguo qianbi / China Numanistics 2002.3:43-46 (in Mandarin)
↑ Niú Dáshēng (牛达生) Research into Western Xia Coins. (2013).
↑ BabelStone (Andrew West) Tangut Coins. Monday, 29 January 2007. Retrieved: 18 June 2017.
↑ in Li Fanwen (李範文), Xia-Han Zidian (夏漢字典) [A Tangut-Chinese Dictionary] (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1997).
↑ Unique Western Xia Coin Written in Seal Script Unearthed in Ningxia. (in en). Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture) (4 October 2016). Retrieved on 20 June 2017.
↑ “China Numismatics” (2016年1期). 宁夏首次出土篆书乾祐元宝。朱浒盛世隆泉 Published 25 April 2016 by Dr. Zhu Hu (朱浒) of the Art Research Institute of East China Normal University (华东师范大学艺术研究所) Retrieved: 20 June 2017. (in Mandarin Chinese using Simplified Chinese characters)
↑ Hartill, 221. State of Qi
↑ Franke, Herbert (1994) "Introduction" in The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368, Cambridge University Press, pp. 2–42 ISBN: 978-0-521-24331-5.
↑ ^a ^b Hartill, 2005, p. 224
↑ Mongolian Coins Yuan State Retrieved: 14 June 2017.
↑ Yuan Dynasty coins (in en). Vladimir A. Belyaev (Charms.ru) (2 August 1998). Retrieved on 14 June 2017.
↑ BabelStone by Andrew West (魏安) Zhida Tongbao. Wednesday, 10 January 2007. Retrieved: 20 June 2017.
↑ Tamar Lan Walker, Class of 2010 Wu Collection of Chinese Coinage. The Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library. Retrieved: 20 June 2017.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 237
↑ Baidu Baike - 永乐通宝。Retrieved: 30 July 2018. (in Mandarin Chinese using Simplified Chinese characters)
↑ 萬曆年造　背一錢　銀錢。 (in zh-tw). 古錢天地 (PChome) (19 November 2010). Retrieved on 5 August 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 247
↑ 大明古泉賞析之大理國珍泉水官通寶銀質母錢。 (in zh-tw). KKNews.cc (28 August 2018). Retrieved on 4 August 2018.
↑ Auburn Tripod Ming dynasty rebel coinage. Retrieved: 13 June 2017
↑ Chinazeug.de Während des chaotischen Übergangs von der Ming zur Qing Dynastie versuchten verschiedene lokale Herrscher die Macht in China zu erobern. Einige ließen eigene Münzen produzieren by Yi and Ralf Thomann (in German) Coins of the rebels during the transition from the Ming>Qing period. Retrieved: 04 August 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 270
↑ Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved on 2011-12-11.
↑ Yale University Art Gallery - Da Shun Tong Bao from the Shun Dynasty. Yale University Art Gallery. Retrieved: 13 June 2017.
↑ Coin Quest China Xi Wang Shang Gong 1644 Retrieved: 13 June 2017.
↑ http://finance.sina.com.cn/money/collection/qbyp/20100803/16408414992.shtml
↑ Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2012-04-25. Retrieved on 2011-12-11.
↑ ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art Qing Period Money. Retrieved: 03 July 2017.
↑ China Ancient Coins Collection Blog (中國古錢集藏網誌). To share my collection and what I have know related to the Chinese Ancient Coins to global coins collectors. Tian Ming Tong Bao (天命通寶). By Learner (檢視我的完整簡介) 於下午11:28. Published: 2009年5月10日星期日。Retrieved: 02 July 2017.
↑ Ma Feihai (馬飛海), Wang Yuxuan (王裕巽), Zou Zhiliang (鄒誌諒) (ed. 2004), Zhongguo lidai huobi daxi 中國歷代貨幣大系, Vol. 6, Qingdai bi (清代幣) (Shanghai: Shanghai shiji chuban jituan/Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe), here nos. 4, 33. (in Mandarin Chinese).
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 280
↑ The Collection Museum An introduction and identification guide to Chinese Qing-dynasty coins. by Qin Cao. Retrieved: 02 July 2017.
↑ Chinese Cast Coins - THE CH'ING DYNASTY. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 423
↑ Anything Anywhere - CHINA, coins of that western region called Xinjiang/Sinkiang. - Xinjiang means "new land." Formerly known to westerners as "Chinese Turkestan." Approximately 5000 years of history, not particularly well written up in English and perhaps some of the Chinese studies are somewhat politically/ethnically biased. By Bob Reis. Retrieved: 25 August 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 404
↑ ChinaZeug.de Qing Rebellen - Rashidin Khan - XinJiang Rebell by Yi and Ralf Thomann. Retrieved: 04 August 2018. (in German)
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 425-428
↑ Money of the Kingdom of Heavenly Peace. The Currency Collector. Retrieved on 24 March 2016.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 428
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 429
↑ 888 Auctions - Lot 254: 1858-1863 Chinese Qing Rebel Yiji Jijian Coin. Retrieved: 27 August 2018.
↑ Invaluable - Lot 254: 1858-1863 Chinese Qing Rebel Yiji Jijian Coin - 888 Auctions - July 5, 2018 - Richmond Hill, ON, CA. Retrieved: 27 August 2018.
↑ My.So-Net.net.tw - 太平天國. Retrieved: 27 August 2018.
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 430
↑ Hartill, 2005, p. 431

[1] Date of launch.

[13] A version of this coin exists with the inscription reversed.

[14] A version of this coin exists with the inscription reversed.

[15] "Yuan Fa" (圜法) was a contemporary term for early round coinage.

[16] As this was the first coin with a square hole this could be considered to be the first "true" Chinese cash coin. This inscription was formerly read as "Yi Dao" (一刀, "one knife"). A version exists where the inscription is reversed, and one where the character "吉" (jí, "auspicious") is on its reverse side.

[17] The "Liu" (六) was formerly read as "Bao" (寶, "treasure").

[18] Could alternatively be read as "兩錙".

[20] Some historical records state that San Zhu cash coins were produced between 140 BC until 136 BC.

[35] This is presumed based on archeological evidence.

[36] This is the first recorded use of a period title on a Chinese cash coin.

[39] Only one specimen of this cash coin is known to exist.

[77] The transliterations are those from Tangutologist Li Fanwen, as opposed to David Hartill's usage "Lee Ndzen" and similar phonetics which are common in the numismatics community.

[85] Chinese, and 'Phags-pa scripts would generally appear on the obverse of these coins, while Mongol script would appear on the reverse and would serve as a mint mark (and in one instance the Jurchen, Uighur, and Tangut scripts); Kublai Khan's Zhong Tong Yuan Bao (中統元寶) was the only coin that contained Seal script, all other Chinese inscriptions during the Mongol period were written in regular script

[107] In Xinjiang coins bearing the inscription Qián Lóng Tōng Bǎo (乾隆通寶) continued to be produced until the fall of the Qing dynasty to commemorate the regions annexation under the Qianlong Emperor, 1 in every 5 coins cast in Xinjiang bear this inscription regardless of era.

[112] The characters on this series are larger than the previous one which featured rather small Arabic writing.

[115] These are perhaps the rarest of all cash coins issued by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.

[NUMISTA-2] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Numis' Numismatic Encyclopedia. A reference list of 5000 years of Chinese coinage. (Numista) Written on December 9, 2012 • Last edit: June 13, 2013. Retrieved: 02 August 2018.

[primaltrek-3] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Chinese coins – 中國錢幣 (in en). Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture) (16 November 2016). Retrieved on 2 August 2018.

[Belyaev-4] Charms.ru Coincidences of Vietnam and China cash coins legends. Francis Ng, People's Republic of China, Thuan D. Luc, United States, and Vladimir A. Belyaev, Russia March–June, 1999 Retrieved: 17 June 2017.

[5] Chinese Cast Coins - ANCIENT CHINESE COINAGE - 700 BC TO 255 BC. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.

[6] uanqian 圜錢, round coins of the Warring States and the Qin Periods. (in en). By Ulrich Theobald (Chinaknowledge - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art). (24 June 2016). Retrieved on 4 September 2018.

[Hartill—2005——80-7] Hartill, 2005, p. 80

[8] Cao Guicen (曹桂岑) (1998). "Huanqian (圜錢)", in Tang Jiahong (唐嘉弘), ed. Zhongguo gudai dianzhang zhidu cidian (中國古代典章制度大辭典) (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou guji chubanshe), 324. (in Mandarin Chinese)

[9] Chen Dewei (陳德維), ed. (1992). Shichang da cidian (市場大辭典) (Beijing: Zhongguo kexue jishu chubanshe), Vol. 2, 977. (in Mandarin Chinese)

[10] Guo Tiexuan (郭鐵宣) (1993). "Huanqian (圜錢)", in Shi Quanchang (石泉長), ed. Zhonghua baike yaolan 中華百科要覽 (Shenyang: Liaoning renmin chubanshe), 137. (in Mandarin Chinese)

[11] Li Zhaochao (李召朝) (1997). "Huanqian (圜錢)", in Men Kui (門巋), Zhang Yanjin (張燕瑾), ed. Zhonghua guocui da cidian (中華國粹大辭典) (Xianggang: Guoji wenhua chuban gongsi), 103. (in Mandarin Chinese)

[12] Zhou Fazeng (周發增), Chen Longtao (陳隆濤), Qi Jixiang (齊吉祥), ed. (1988). Zhongguo gudai zhengzhi zhidu shi cidian (中國古代政治制度史辭典) (Beijing: Shoudu shifan daxue chubanshe), 345. (in Mandarin Chinese)

[19] Chinese Cast Coins - ANCIENT CHINESE COINAGE - 255 BC TO AD 221. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.

[21] The Numismatic Legacy of Wang Mang, AD 9 - 23 (Ancient Cast Chinese Coins Series - Lidai Guqian) by Heinz Gratzer and A.M. Fishman. Published: 20 March 2017. ISBN 1540437299.

[22] Ancient Chinese Coins: Xin Dynasty Normal Coins. (in en). Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives). (2006). Retrieved on 3 September 2018.

[23] Ancient Chinese Coins: Xin Dynasty Shuiyin Gu. (in en). Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives). (2006). Retrieved on 3 September 2018.

[Hartill—2005——86–90-24] Hartill, 2005, p. 86–90

[25] Wu Zhu – One of the longest lived coin types. (in en). by Bob Reis (Professional Coin Grading Service - Collectors Universe). (17 July 2000). Retrieved on 2 September 2018.

[26] Khotan lead coin. (in en). Vladimir Belyaev (Chinese Coinage Web Site). (3 December 1999). Retrieved on 2 September 2018.

[27] Ancient Khotan. (in en). by Stein Márk Aurél (hosted on Wikimedia Commons). (1907). Retrieved on 2 September 2018.

[28] Cribb, Joe, "The Sino-Kharosthi Coins of Khotan: Their Attribution and Relevance to Kushan Chronology: Part 1", Numismatic Chronicle Vol. 144 (1984), pp. 128–152; and Cribb, Joe, "The Sino-Kharosthi Coins of Khotan: Their Attribution and Relevance to Kushan Chronology: Part 2", Numismatic Chronicle Vol. 145 (1985), pp. 136–149.

[Hartill—2005——-29] Hartill, 2005

[30] Xinjiang, Qiuzi Kingdom - Bilingual Cash Coins. (in en). By Vladimir Belyaev (Chinese Coinage Website - Charm.ru). (11 February 2002). Retrieved on 25 August 2018.

[31] Jen, David Chinese Cash: Identification and Price Guide, 340 p, 2000.

[Hartill—2005——94-32] Hartill, 2005, p. 94

[Hartill—2005——98-33] Hartill, 2005, p. 98

[34] Ancient Chinese Coins: Later Wu Zhu. (in en). Content and photographs by Adrian Loder, archives hosted by James Peirce (Kongming's Archives). (2006). Retrieved on 1 September 2018.

[Hartill—2005——99–101-37] Hartill, 2005, p. 99–101

[38] Chinese Cast Coins - A TIME OF DISUNITY. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.

[Hartill—2005——102-40] Hartill, 2005, p. 102

[Hartill—2005——101-41] Hartill, 2005, p. 101

[42] Chinese Cast Coins - MEDIEVAL CHINESE COINS - THE SUI, T'ANG AND POST TANG DYNASTIES. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.

[Hartill—2005——103–110-43] Hartill, 2005, p. 103–110

[Hartill—2005——111-44] Hartill, 2005, p. 111

[45] A Cash-like Coin of Uyghur Qaghan Boquq. (in en). Vladimir Belyaev, François Thierry de Crussol, and Dr. V.N. Nastich (Chinese Coinage Web Site). (5 September 2000). Retrieved on 1 September 2018.

[46] Collector.com – UYGHUR KHAGANATE: Boquq khaqan, 795-808, AE cash (2.53g), written in Uyghur script, words reading from right to left: KWYL PYLK' - TNKRY -PWXWX `WYXWR - X'X'N (Kol bilga Tangri Boquq Uigur qagan) / `YL TWTMYS - YRLXYNK', nice patination, VF, RRR, ex Nicholas Rhodes Collection. Retrieved: 01 September 2018.

[47] Les Monnies de Boquq Qaghan des Ouighours (795-808) by François Thierry de Crussol. (in French)

[48] Dong Qingxuan, Jiang Qixiang Xinjiang Numismatics, Hong Kong, 1991, p.25. (in Mandarin Chinese)

[49] Xinjiang - Western Uyghur Kaganat - "Xizhou Huihu" Cash Coin. (in en). Vladimir Belyaev and François Thierry de Crussol (Chinese Coinage Web Site). (5 September 2000). Retrieved on 9 February 2002.

[Hartill—2005——113.-50] Hartill, 2005, p. 113.

[Hartill—2005——113–114.-51] Hartill, 2005, p. 113–114.

[Hartill—2005——115.-52] Hartill, 2005, p. 115.

[Hartill—2005——116-117.-53] Hartill, 2005, p. 116-117.

[Hartill—2005——117.-54] Hartill, 2005, p. 117.

[Hartill—2005——118.-55] Hartill, 2005, p. 118.

[Hartill—2005——119–120.-56] Hartill, 2005, p. 119–120.

[Hartill—2005——121-123.-57] Hartill, 2005, p. 121-123.

[Hartill—2005——122-58] Hartill, 2005, p. 122

[Hartill—2005——123–124.-59] Hartill, 2005, p. 123–124.

[60] Gao Han-ming "Jianming Guqian Cidian" ("Short Dictionary of Ancient Cash Coins"), in Chinese.

[61] Wan Young-Jun, Li Guohui "New gold coin with Kidan inscription found", Inner Mongolia Ancient Financial Research Journal, 1992, issue No.1, p.46. (in Mandarin Chinese).

[62] Chinese Coinage Website (Charms.ru) The Liao Dynasty Cash Coin with Kidan Inscription by Vladimir A. Belyaev, Published: Last updated: 18 June 2002 Retrieved: 18 June 2017.

[63] Sun Jimin (孫繼民) (1994). "內蒙古剋什剋騰旗發現契丹大字金銀錢". Kaogu 考古 (2): 179. ISSN 0453-2899.

[64] Chinese Cast Coins - MEDIEVAL CHINESE COINS - TARTAR, MONGOL, MING DYNASTIES - (A.D. 960 to 1644). (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.

[65] Charms.ru Coins of the Liao Dynasty (Ch'i-tan, Tartar) a.d.907-1125 by Vladimir A. Belyaev (Moscow), Russia Retrieved: 24 June 2017.

[66] Pei Yuan-Bo The Liao Dynasty Coins Inscribed ‘Ten Thousand Years’. Published: 10 December 2016. Retrieved: 19 June 2017.

[67] Error: title= and url= must be specified (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.

[68] Northern Song Dynasty Cash Variety Guide, Volume 1 Fugo Senshi - Norman F. Gorny, 2001.

[69] Coins and Charms of the Shui Nationality.. Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture) (1 June 2013). Retrieved on 14 May 2018.

[70] Pan Chaolin (潘朝霖) - Guizhou University for Nationalities (贵州民族学院).

[71] Qi Geng 贵州水族的古老文字和待解之迷。2009-03-17 11:20. Retrieved: 14 May 2018. (in Mandarin Chinese using Simplified Chinese characters)

[72] 1994. “西夏的衡制與幣制 Xixia de hengzhi yu bizhi (The weight and coin systems of the West Xia)” 《中國錢幣》 Zhongguo qianbi / China Numanistics 1994.1: 3-8,17, 81 (in Mandarin)

[73] 2002. “西夏货币制度概述 (The Outline of monetary system of West Xia dynasty).” 《中國錢幣》 Zhongguo qianbi / China Numanistics 2002.3:43-46 (in Mandarin)

[74] Niú Dáshēng (牛达生) Research into Western Xia Coins. (2013).

[75] BabelStone (Andrew West) Tangut Coins. Monday, 29 January 2007. Retrieved: 18 June 2017.

[76] Li Fanwen (李範文), Xia-Han Zidian (夏漢字典) [A Tangut-Chinese Dictionary] (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1997).

[78] Unique Western Xia Coin Written in Seal Script Unearthed in Ningxia. (in en). Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture) (4 October 2016). Retrieved on 20 June 2017.

[79] “China Numismatics” (2016年1期). 宁夏首次出土篆书乾祐元宝。朱浒盛世隆泉 Published 25 April 2016 by Dr. Zhu Hu (朱浒) of the Art Research Institute of East China Normal University (华东师范大学艺术研究所) Retrieved: 20 June 2017. (in Mandarin Chinese using Simplified Chinese characters)

[80] Hartill, 221. State of Qi

[81] Franke, Herbert (1994) "Introduction" in The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368, Cambridge University Press, pp. 2–42 ISBN: 978-0-521-24331-5.

[Hartill—2005——224-82] Hartill, 2005, p. 224

[83] Mongolian Coins Yuan State Retrieved: 14 June 2017.

[84] Yuan Dynasty coins (in en). Vladimir A. Belyaev (Charms.ru) (2 August 1998). Retrieved on 14 June 2017.

[86] BabelStone by Andrew West (魏安) Zhida Tongbao. Wednesday, 10 January 2007. Retrieved: 20 June 2017.

[87] Tamar Lan Walker, Class of 2010 Wu Collection of Chinese Coinage. The Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library. Retrieved: 20 June 2017.

[Hartill—2005——237-88] Hartill, 2005, p. 237

[89] Baidu Baike - 永乐通宝。Retrieved: 30 July 2018. (in Mandarin Chinese using Simplified Chinese characters)

[90] 萬曆年造　背一錢　銀錢。 (in zh-tw). 古錢天地 (PChome) (19 November 2010). Retrieved on 5 August 2018.

[Hartill—2005——247-91] Hartill, 2005, p. 247

[92] 大明古泉賞析之大理國珍泉水官通寶銀質母錢。 (in zh-tw). KKNews.cc (28 August 2018). Retrieved on 4 August 2018.

[93] Auburn Tripod Ming dynasty rebel coinage. Retrieved: 13 June 2017

[94] Chinazeug.de Während des chaotischen Übergangs von der Ming zur Qing Dynastie versuchten verschiedene lokale Herrscher die Macht in China zu erobern. Einige ließen eigene Münzen produzieren by Yi and Ralf Thomann (in German) Coins of the rebels during the transition from the Ming>Qing period. Retrieved: 04 August 2018.

[Hartill—2005——270-95] Hartill, 2005, p. 270

[96] Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved on 2011-12-11.

[97] Yale University Art Gallery - Da Shun Tong Bao from the Shun Dynasty. Yale University Art Gallery. Retrieved: 13 June 2017.

[98] Coin Quest China Xi Wang Shang Gong 1644 Retrieved: 13 June 2017.

[99] ttp://finance.sina.com.cn/money/collection/qbyp/20100803/16408414992.shtml

[100] Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2012-04-25. Retrieved on 2011-12-11.

[101] ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art Qing Period Money. Retrieved: 03 July 2017.

[102] China Ancient Coins Collection Blog (中國古錢集藏網誌). To share my collection and what I have know related to the Chinese Ancient Coins to global coins collectors. Tian Ming Tong Bao (天命通寶). By Learner (檢視我的完整簡介) 於下午11:28. Published: 2009年5月10日星期日。Retrieved: 02 July 2017.

[103] Ma Feihai (馬飛海), Wang Yuxuan (王裕巽), Zou Zhiliang (鄒誌諒) (ed. 2004), Zhongguo lidai huobi daxi 中國歷代貨幣大系, Vol. 6, Qingdai bi (清代幣) (Shanghai: Shanghai shiji chuban jituan/Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe), here nos. 4, 33. (in Mandarin Chinese).

[Hartill—2005——280-104] Hartill, 2005, p. 280

[105] The Collection Museum An introduction and identification guide to Chinese Qing-dynasty coins. by Qin Cao. Retrieved: 02 July 2017.

[106] Chinese Cast Coins - THE CH'ING DYNASTY. (in en). By Robert Kokotailo (Calgary Coin & Antique Gallery – Chinese Cast Coins). (2018). Retrieved on 22 August 2018.

[Hartill—2005——423-108] Hartill, 2005, p. 423

[109] Anything Anywhere - CHINA, coins of that western region called Xinjiang/Sinkiang. - Xinjiang means "new land." Formerly known to westerners as "Chinese Turkestan." Approximately 5000 years of history, not particularly well written up in English and perhaps some of the Chinese studies are somewhat politically/ethnically biased. By Bob Reis. Retrieved: 25 August 2018.

[Hartill—2005——404-110] Hartill, 2005, p. 404

[111] ChinaZeug.de Qing Rebellen - Rashidin Khan - XinJiang Rebell by Yi and Ralf Thomann. Retrieved: 04 August 2018. (in German)

[Hartill—2005——425-428-113] Hartill, 2005, p. 425-428

[114] Money of the Kingdom of Heavenly Peace. The Currency Collector. Retrieved on 24 March 2016.

[Hartill—2005——428-116] Hartill, 2005, p. 428

[Hartill—2005——429-117] Hartill, 2005, p. 429

[118] 888 Auctions - Lot 254: 1858-1863 Chinese Qing Rebel Yiji Jijian Coin. Retrieved: 27 August 2018.

[119] Invaluable - Lot 254: 1858-1863 Chinese Qing Rebel Yiji Jijian Coin - 888 Auctions - July 5, 2018 - Richmond Hill, ON, CA. Retrieved: 27 August 2018.

[120] My.So-Net.net.tw - 太平天國. Retrieved: 27 August 2018.

[Hartill—2005——430-121] Hartill, 2005, p. 430

[Hartill—2005——431-122] Hartill, 2005, p. 431

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Obverse inscription (Romanised)	Reverse inscription (Romanised)	Sultan	Mint	Years of production
سيد غازي راشدين خان (Sayyid Ghazi Rashidin Khan)	زرب دار السلطانات كوجا (Zarb dar al-Sultanat Kuqa)	Rashidin Khan Khoja	Kucha	1864–1865
سيد غازي راشدين خان (Sayyid Ghazi Rashidin Khan)^[o]	زرب دار السلطانات كوجا (Zarb dar al-Sultanat Kuqa)	Rashidin Khan Khoja	Kucha	1865–1867
سيد غازي راشدين خان (Sayyid Ghazi Rashidin Khan)	زرب دار السلطانات أقسو (Zarb dar al-Sultanat Aqsu)	Rashidin Khan Khoja	Aksu	1864–1867